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奥斯曼帝国的衰亡_[英] 尤金·罗根【完结】(50)

  [12] Faydi, Mudhakkirat, 199.

  [13] Faydi, Mudhakkirat, 203.

  [14] F. J. Moberly, The Campaign in Mesopotamia, 1914–1918 (London: HMSO, 1923), 1:106–153;Charles Townshend, When God Made Hell: The British Invasion of Mesopotamia and the Creation of Iraq, 1914–1921 (London: Faber and Faber, 2010), 3–10.

  [15] Edmund Candler, The Long Road to Baghdad (London: Cassell and Co., 1919), 1:111.

  [16] Moberly, The Campaign in Mesopotamia,117–27;Ron Wilcox, Battles on the Tigris: The Mesopotamian Campaign of the First World War (Barnsley, UK: Pen & Sword Books, 2006), 2–26;Townshend,When God Made Hell,30–40.

  [17] NARA, Basra box 005, letter from John Van Ess dated Busrah, 21 November 1914.

  [18] 珀西·考克斯爵士对巴士拉人民的讲话引自Wilson, Loyalties Mesopotamia, 1:311.

  [19] Moberly, The Campaign in Mesopotamia, 1:151–152.

  [20] 伤亡人数来自Moberly, The Campaign in Mesopotamia, 1:106–153.

  [21] IWM Documents 828, diary of Private W. R. Bird, entry of 14 January 1915.

  [22] Townshend, When God Made Hell, 66.

  [23] IWM, P 158, Documents 10048, private papers of Lieutenant Colonel H. V. Gell, diary entry of 10–11 November 1914.

  [24] G. Wyman Bury, Arabia Infelix, or the Turks in Yamen (London: Macmillan, 1915), 16–19.

  [25] Harold F. Jacob, Kings of Arabia: The Rise and Set of the Turkish Sovranty in the Arabian Peninsula (London: Mills & Boon, 1923), 158–161.

  [26] W. T. Massey, The Desert Campaigns (London: Constable, 1918), 1–3.

  [27] Letter dated Zeitoun Camp, 4 January 1915, in Glyn Harper, ed., Letters from Gallipoli: New Zealand Soldiers Write Home (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2011), 47–48. See also the memoirs of Trevor Holmden, chap. 3, Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand, MS-Papers 2223.

  [28] Ian Jone, The Australian Light Horse (Sydney: Time-life Books [Australia], 1987), 25;Fred Waite, The New Zealanders at Gallipoli (Auckland: Whitcombe and Tombs, 1919), 38.

  [29] C. E. W. Bean是澳大利亚皇家部队的官方历史学家,他在自己的私人日记中描述了1915年4月2日发生在红盲区的骚乱,日记时间为1915年3月至4月,22–31。这些日记被澳大利亚战争纪念馆保存,内容可在网上查到 www.awm.gov.au/collection/records/ awm38(下文代称为C. E. W. Bean diaries)。

  [30] 澳大利亚和新西兰方面对骚乱始末及其原因的描述,参见Harper, Letters from Gallipoli,50–51;C.E.W.Bean diaries,March–April 1915,30;Trevor Holmden memoirs,chap. 3,3–5.

  [31] 引自 C. E. W. Bean diaries,March–April 1915,25–28.

  [32] Ahmad Shafiq, Hawliyat Masr al-siyasiyya [埃及政治年鉴],Part I (Cairo: Matba`a Shafiq Pasha, 1926), 84. 另见Latifa Muhammad Salim, Masr fi’l-harb al-`alimiyya al-ula [第一次世界大战中的埃及] (Cairo: Dar al-Shorouk, 2009), 239–243.

  [33] Larcher, La guerre turque, 172.

  [34] NARA, Istanbul vol. 282, Alfred Grech report from Dardanelles, 31 August 1914; C. F. Aspinall-Oglander, Military Operations: Gallipoli (London: William Heinemann, 1929),1:32–36; Mustafa Aksakal, The Ottoman Road to War in 1914: The Ottoman Empire and the First World War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 136–137.

  [35] Liman von Sanders, Five Years in Turkey,47–48;Erickson, Ordered to Die, 75–82.

  [36] NARA, Istanbul vol. 292, report of US vice consul, Trebizond, 31 March 1915.

  [37] NARA, Istanbul vol. 281, report of US consul, Mersin, 2 November 1914; vol. 282, report of US consul, Mersin, 30 November 1914; vol. 293, report of US consul, Mersin, 5 March 1915.

  [38] NARA Istanbul vol. 293包含多份有关Alexandretta Incident的报告、电报和文件,包括reports from US Consul Jackson in Aleppo of 21 December 1914 and 8 January 1915, and from US Consular Agent H. E. Bishop in Alexandretta of 24 December 1914, 26 December 1914, and 12 January 1915.

  [39] NARA, Istanbul vol. 281, eyewitness report by C. Van H. Engert on the sinking of the Messoudieh in the Dardanelles, 14 December 1914.

  [40] C. Van H. Engert在其1914年12月14日的报告中,引用了海军中将默腾关于奥斯曼军总部就马苏迪号沉没一事,以及协约国达达尼尔海峡策略的看法,参见General Ali Ihsan Sâbis, Birinci Dünya Harbi [第一次世界大战] (Istanbul: Nehir Yayinlari, 1992), 2:261–262.

  第五章

  发动圣战:奥斯曼帝国在高加索与西奈的战役一战爆发的前几周,奥斯曼帝国在其辽阔的边境遭遇了一连串失利,但他们的军队仍然完整,而且土耳其人还未打出圣战这张充满变数的牌。事实上,许多德国高层指挥官都认为,奥斯曼帝国对一战最大的贡献不是来自其军队,而是通过他们的军事行动带动法国北非殖民地、英属印度,以及俄国高加索与中亚地区的穆斯林起义。后院起火至少能迫使协约国往亚洲与非洲部署兵力,以维护其穆斯林领土的安定,从而缓解德国在西线,以及德国与奥地利在东线的压力。

  自1914年9月中旬以来,同盟国在东西战线的压力与日俱增。9月5日至12日,英法联军在马恩河向德军发起反攻,后者无法继续推进,战事演变成堑壕战。西欧的僵局使得德国已是两线作战。德军原计划在法国速战速决,以抽出兵力援助奥地利,全力对抗俄国。奥地利人在东线需要大量支援。1914年8月至9月,奥匈帝国在巴尔干地区对抗塞尔维亚,以及在奥匈治下的加里西亚东部地区面对俄军时,均遭惨败。仅加里西亚一役就折损近35万兵力。眼看奥地利已风雨飘摇,德国急忙对奥斯曼帝国施压,敦促这位盟友向俄军发起进攻。[1]


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